What are the mechanisms behind the formation and evolution of planetary systems

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What are the mechanisms behind the formation and evolution of planetary systems, considering factors such as protoplanetary disks, gravitational interactions, and the role of stellar feedback in shaping the characteristics of exoplanets?Thermodynamics: How do irreversible processes, such as heat conduction and friction, relate to the second law of thermodynamics and the increase of entropy in closed systems, and how can these principles be applied to analyze the efficiency of heat engines and refriger