REVIEW OF RHETORICAL ANALYSIS Why analyze? To interact with and interpret the text – this is where your thoughts and perspective come in!

− understand larger implications – for yourself, others, society What is rhetorical analysis?

− a critical breakdown and examination of the text or other piece of media

− it identifies the strategies of the piece

− provides and understanding of how the piece works, on whom, and why Audience is key We are concerned with the effect of an author’s choice on the intended audience—and how that choice helped (or didn’t help) the author achieve their rhetorical goals. If you aren’t discussing audience, it’s not a rhetorical analysis. Goals of Analysis

− to examine how the author pursues their purpose in relation to audience(s) and context

− to consider the author’s motivation for this text

− to identify rhetorical choices the author uses in delivering this research to the audience

− to evaluate how effective/persuasive the text is at achieving its purpose Substance of rhetorical analysis

− Rhetorical situation (in detail): purpose, audience, context, genre

− Rhetorical strategies & appeals

− Evaluation of success (or lack thereof): did the text achieve the author’s rhetorical goals?

Questions to ask

− Who is the author trying to reach?

− Why did the author choose to use this strategy or rhetorical move?

− How does it help the author connect with the intended audience?

− Ask yourself lots of questions about the rhetorical situation, too…

Purpose Why did the author/source create this text? What’s the point or message? What is it trying to persuade the audience to do?

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Audience Who are the target audiences? What does the source think the audience cares about? Why is the audience important to the author/source and/or issue? Context What conversation(s) is this text engaging? What external factors must you take into account to understand how this text works in the real world? Genre What kind of text is it? What are the conventions (audience expectations) of this genre? How does this text fulfill or challenge these expectations?

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RHETORICAL APPEALS Rhetorical appeals are strategies to make an argument stronger in order to persuade the audience through emotions, logic, credibility, values, and timeliness. The first three appeals are the most widely used: logos, ethos, and pathos. While each of the appeals is important, a well crafted argument generally uses all of them together. Often there is overlap between the appeals. Logos is the appeal to logic through reason and evidence.

When discussing the logos of a piece, or trying to use logos in your own writing, consider how an argument is developed and what evidence is used to support the argument. Often facts, statistics, or critical analysis are included. You want to think about whether the evidence is sufficient (is there enough evidence to support the claim?); if it’s relevant (does it actually support the claim or is it off topic?); and the accuracy of the evidence. Weak logos uses faulty logic or commits logical fallacies such as: making generalizations or blanket statements without supporting them; jumping to conclusions; suggesting that one event causes another without evidence; exhibiting circular thinking (when the evidence is simply restating the claim, for example, this is beautiful because it’s pretty); or creating an either/or argument when there are actually more choices available. There are other fallacies; these are just some of the more common examples. But essentially, making claims without supporting them creates poor logos.

Ethos is the appeal to the character or credibility of the source and/or creator.

When discussing the ethos of a piece, or trying to use ethos in your own writing, consider how authority or credibility with the audience is established. This can be done by presenting a topic fairly – not misrepresenting facts or only telling only one side of the story. Ethos is strengthened by demonstrating knowledge on the topic. Ethos also includes showing respect for those with differing opinions. Weak ethos includes fabrication, plagiarism, and outright lying. Other examples would be attacking a person with a different argument rather than the argument itself or claiming someone to be an authority who lacks the background or credentials. Poor ethos most often turns up in student writing by misrepresenting a text.

Pathos is the appeal to the emotions or values of the audience.

When discussing the pathos of a piece, or trying to use pathos in your own writing, consider how the writing connects to the audience’s emotions and interests. Often without a personal connection, some people won’t be interested no matter how logical an argument.

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However, appealing only to emotions will only work to a certain point before it can become overwrought, frivolous, or shallow.

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ADDITIONAL RHETORICAL STRATEGIES Each of the rhetorical appeals is a particular strategy for making an argument. However, there are other strategies to be aware of both in what we analyze about what makes a piece of writing or other media “work” and how to improve our own writing. Look for Metaphors & Themes Identify symbols: an artifact (usually something concrete) that represents something else (usually something abstract) (ex. American flag might represent freedom or patriotism) Identify motifs: recurring image, word, or phrase that helps carry a theme or other abstract idea Tone, Style, Structure Consider tone, style, language or word choice. What effect do these have on your reading? Structure: In what order does the author move through ideas? How does this contribute to building their case? Is it effective? More Strategies Patterns: Repetition of phrases, images, design elements, structure, etc. Just as a pattern will create meaning, an established pattern that is broken is also significant. Reference: Text that makes a connection to another text (obvious or not). Allusion, allegory, quotation, parody.

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WRITING TIPS: OVERVIEW OF ACADEMIC CONVENTIONS Open & Closed Form Prose: a brief overview Closed-Form Prose

− Used in American Academia

− The thesis or main idea is clearly stated in the introduction

− All parts of the essay are clearly linked to the introduction

− There is a logical top-down order to the essay with clear transitions

− Formal tone with clear and concise language Open-Form Prose

− Often has an explicit theme rather than a thesis

− Often organized chronologically or has story-like elements; uses literary techniques; often called “literary nonfiction”

− Reader gets transplanted into a plot in which there are scenes that involve issues or conflicts

− Informal tone with expressive and exploratory language Note: writing is not either open or closed – it’s more like a spectrum with most writing falling somewhere in between. Another way of looking at it: Closed-form prose: many of the decisions regarding structure, content, style, etc. are

predetermined by the audience or writing situation. The writer must adhere to a set or standard of constraints and conventions.

Open-form prose: the writer has the freedom to choose what and how to write including

decisions about structure, organization, style, tone etc. For example, for your rhetorical analysis essay, I’ve chosen what you can write about and more or less told you how to write it. I have effectively made most of the decisions for you. Even though you can determine how you go about fulfilling the assignment prompt, your choices are still limited by the prompt as well as the text/video options. However, for your personal essay assignment, your choices will be much more open. Closed-Form Prose: strong paragraph qualities

− Unity: all central ideas point to the central idea, topic, or point of the paragraph

− Coherence: sentences are organized in a logical manner and follow a logical trajectory

− Development of Ideas: each point made is supported through evidence and interpretation

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Closed-Form Prose: conventional paragraph structure

− Topic Sentence: identifies the major claim or issue of the paragraph

− Logical Transitions: both within and between paragraphs to show connection between information and/or ideas

− Wrap-up Sentence: pulls the paragraph back to the main point before moving on and can help transition towards the next idea or evidence being presented.

Transitions

− Help readers follow your train of thought

− Show how two ideas connect

− Signal what kind of connections you are making

− Transitions work well in the first sentence of a new paragraph and the last sentence of a preceding paragraph.

Framing the Conversation

− Opening and closing paragraphs serve as a frame for the analysis.

− They should logically lead to and from the analysis.

− They should invite the audience to situate this analysis within larger public conversations.

− They should answer the “so what?” challenge. Constructing a Frame: questions to consider

− What issue(s) does this text engage?

− How/where has this issue been talked about recently?

− Is it controversial and therefore perhaps avoided?

− Is it obvious and therefore perhaps neglected?

− Do people have certain assumptions or prejudices that should be challenged?

− Does the text present the issue in a new or innovative manner? Goals of an Introduction

− Hook the reader’s interest and attention.

− Identify the topic; explain why it matters.

− Orient the reader and guide them to your thesis statement.

− Establish a roadmap that will prepare your reader for the journey ahead. When to Write the Introduction

− Generally, it’s best to write an introduction after the body of your paper is complete AND after you’ve written and refined your thesis statement

− Waiting till this point means you will be familiar with your analysis and its direction and know what background is needed for your audience to understand your thesis

Introductions as an Inverted Triangle

− Begin with a broad (but not sweeping) description of the topic the text addresses.

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− Identify why it matters.

− Introduce the text you are analyzing and how it fits within this conversation.

− Give your thesis statement, which should be sufficiently narrow and specific. Narrative Hooks:

− Relate a sequence of events that draws the reader into the topic.

− Choose a story that clearly connects to your text and/or your analysis to justify the slow introduction.

− Get to the point before your readers wonder, “What’s the point?”

− It can be anecdote or actual event. (It’s probably best to save a personal narrative or anecdote for your personal essay assignment rather than in the rhetorical analysis.)

Interrogative Hooks:

− Invite readers into the conversation of your essay by asking one or more questions:

− Pique your readers’ interest with provocative, challenging questions…

− Or ask questions they assume have an easy answer–then turn the tables. You do not have to do either of those types of hooks. They are just here as examples… Try to Avoid These Moves in an Introduction

− Beginning with a dictionary definition. It’s a common high school move that can bore or even offends readers.

− Beginning too broadly/using a “cosmic statement.” Don’t start your paper with some sweeping statement about history or humanity: “From the dawn of mankind… Throughout human history….” At worst, it could read as trite or too grand for the topic. At best, it will require too big a leap to your actual topic.

Thesis Statements

− Essentially, a thesis statement is the big, overarching claim (or argument) your paper is making.

− It should be supported by other claims, along with evidence from the text

− You do not need a solid thesis to start writing your paper

− It’s OK to start out with a “hypothesis” about how and why a text works. Writing itself deepens understanding.

− A strong thesis will be specific as well as assert your main argument or claim about how the text works.

− Remember that a thesis statement is arguable. A topic is something that is not arguable. This often gets mixed up and understandably. They are sometimes used interchangeably, but in reality they are two different things. A thesis makes an assertion about a topic or issue that someone else could disagree with.

The Developing Thesis

− Avoid jumping to conclusions before you’ve fully explored the text.

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− Build your thesis up from details, rather than working down to find support for your thesis. In other words, don’t create a thesis and then try to defend it. Instead, identify details or evidence of what the text is doing and then devise your thesis.

− Base your argument on evidence, not assumptions.

− Be specific.

− Your argument is about the text, not about the issue the text addresses. Elements of the Thesis

− Who (author/creator/organization)

− is doing What? (strategies used)

− to Whom? (audience)

− How?

− Why? Using Quotations The use of quotes can add proof or evidence for your summaries and main claims. However, simply picking random quotes does little to help your argument. When choosing a quote, it’s important to have some idea of what you are going to do with it.

Ask yourself, how does it support the thesis or supporting claims. It’s important to remember that quotes don’t speak for themselves; they require explanation. A Few Guidelines for Quotations

− Avoid relying too heavily on quotes – that is, make sure that your own thinking is prominent in your analysis, otherwise it’s not really an analysis

− Make sure you properly introduce quotes by indicating who is speaking and set up what the quotation says

− Make sure you explain why you think the quote is important and what you think the quote is saying

− Generally, your explanation of the quote should be at least as long as the quote itself. Conclusion

− Revisits the thesis statement, but uses different words

− Summarizes main ideas and support, again, uses different words

− Provides a satisfying answer to the “so what?” question. What is the significance? Why should we care?